Militarization of Cyberspace, Changing Aspects of War in the 21st Century: The Case of Stuxnet Against Iran

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Faculty of World Studies & Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Tehran

2 Faculty of World Studies, University of Tehran

Abstract

Militarization is perceived as the intentions of the military to intervene and overcome civilian procedures. The tendency for militarism generates from the military’s ambition to be dominant over procedures not commonly perceived as military. It is described as an effort “to make people accept and love war, and see it as ‘normal’” (Lutz, 2009a, in Bickford, 2015) and is usually associated with high military expenditures. On the other hand, the emergence of cyberspace has opened new capacities and paradigmatic frameworks for conceptualization of sociopolitical phenomena. The present article is concerned with the US use of Stuxnet against Iran’s nuclear facilities in 2010. While being a cyber-tool in the US hostile foreign policy against Iran, the attack is discussed in the related literature as an act of cyber-war. This article argues that besides marking a cyber-tool in the US foreign policy against Iran, the attack was part of a long term militarization process in the US cyber strategy. Relying on dual-spacization’s assumptions of physical-virtual reality and using theory-testing process-tracing as the research method, this article concludes that the militarization process whereby Stuxnet was used as an alternative to kinetic attack on Iran, dual-spacized the nature of war.

Keywords

Main Subjects

Article Title [Persian]

نظامی‎سازی فضای مجازی، تغییر جنبه‌های جنگ در قرن 21: مورد استاکس نت علیه ایران

References

Ameli, S. R. (1382 [2003 A.D.]). Do fazāyi šodan-hā va jāme'e-ye jahāni-ye ezterāb [In English: Dual –Speciation and the Global Stress Community]. Journal of Social Sciences Letter, 6(21), pp. 143-174 (in Persian)
Ameli, S. R. (1390 [2011]). Ruykard-e do fazayi be āsib-hā, jarāyem, qavānin va siyāsaha-ye fazā-ye majāzi [In English: dual spatial approach to cyberspace harms, crimes, laws and policies]. Tehran: Amirkabir (in Persian)
Ameli, S. R. (1391 [2012 A.D.]). Motāle't-e jahāni šhodan: do fazāyi šodan-ha va do jahāni šodan-ha [In English: Globalization Studies: Dual-Spacizations and Dual Globalizations]. Tehran: Samt (in Persian)
Anderson, C. and Sadjadpour, K. (2018). Iran’s Cyber Threat Espionage, Sabotage, and Revenge. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved form: https://carnegieendowment.org/files/Iran_Cyber_Final_Full_v2.pdf
Beach, D. and Pederson, R. B. (2013). Process-Tracing Methods Foundations and Guidelines. Michigan: the University of Michigan Press. Retrieved Jul. 24 from: https://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=4&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwiK2vuY_MzjAhWdD2MBHc1ZBaYQFjADegQIARAC&url=https%3A%2F%2Fedisciplinas.usp.br%2Fpluginfile.php%2F4250035%2Fmod_folder%2Fcontent%2F0%2FTextos%2FBeach%2520and%2520Pedersen%252C%2520Process-Tracing%2520Methods%2520-%2520Foundations%2520and%2520Guidelines.pdf%3Fforcedownload%3D1&usg=AOvVaw1Fl_oZU2yTJkN0MZ2kpNLB
Bennett, A. (2010). Process Tracing and Causal Inference. In H. Brady and D. Collier (Eds.), Rethinking Social Inquiry (2nd Ed.) (pp. 207-220.). UK: Rowman and Littlefield. Retrieved from: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/11923055.pdf.
Bennett, A. and Checkel, J. T. (2012, Jan). Process Tracing: From Philosophical Roots to Best Practices. Working Paper No. 21/2012. Vancouver: Simon Fraser University Simons Papers in Security and Development. Retrieved Jul, 24. 2019 from https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/56379008.pdf
Ben-Israel, I and Tabansky, L. (2014). An Interdisciplinary Look at Security Challenges in the Information Age. In Siboni, G. (Ed.). Cyberspace and National Security Selected Articles II (pp. 51-67). Tel Aviv: INSS Institute for National Security Studies Retrieved from:
Bickford, A. (2015). Militaries and Militarization, Anthropology of. Retrieved from Science Direct: https:// www. sciencedirect. com/ topics/ social- sciences/ militarization
Blueprint for a Secure Cyber Future. (2011). Department of Homeland Security. The Cybersecurity Strategy for the Homeland Security Enterprise. Retrieved form: https://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/nppd/blueprint-for-a-secure-cyber-future.pdf
Cavelty, M. D. (2007).Cyber-Security and Threat Politics: US efforts to secure the information age. EBOOK. Retrieved
Cilluffo, F. J.; Cardash, Sh. L. and Salmoiraghi, G. C. (2014). A Blueprint for Cyber Deterrence: Building Stability through Strength. In G. C. Siboni (Ed.),Cyberspace and National Security (Selected Articles II) (pp. 7-27). Tel Aviv: Institute for National Security Studies. Retrieved from: http://din-online.info/pdf/in2e.pdf
Craig, A. and Valeriano, B. (2016). Conceptualising Cyber Arms Races. Paper Presented in 8th International Conference on Cyber Conflict Cyber Power https:// www. researchgate. net/ publication/ 305871947_ Conceptualising_ cyber_ arms_ races
Crane, C. C.; Lynch, M. E.; Sheets, J. J. and Reilly, Sh. P. (2019). A Return to Information Warfare. The United States Army War College. U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center. Retrieved Oct. 21, 2019 from: https:// ahec. armywarcollege. edu/documents/A_Return_to_Information_Warfare.pdf
Cutts, A. (2009). Warfare and the Continuum of Cyber Risks: A Policy Perspective. In Ch. Czosseck and K. Geers (Eds.), The Virtual Battlefield: Perspectives on Cyber Warfare (pp. 66-76). Amsterdam: IOS Press
Cyberspace Policy Review. (2009). Retrieved from: https://assets.documentcloud.org/ documents/2700108/Document-28.pdf
DARPA. (2008). The National Cyber Range. A National Testbed for Critical Cyber Research. Retrieved from: https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/files/documents/ cyber/DARPA%20-%20NationalCyberRange_FactSheet.pdf
Deibert, R. (2011). Tracking the Emerging Arms Race in Cyberspace. Interview interviewer: Bass. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 67(1), pp. 1–8. Retrieved from: http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0096340210393703
Farwell J. P. and Rohozinski, R. (2011). Stuxnet and the Future of Cyber War. Survival, 53(1), pp. 23-40. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2011.555586
Farwell, J. P. and Rohozinski, R. (2012). The New Reality of Cyber War. Survival, 54(4), pp. 107-120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00396338.2012.709391
Fergusen, B., Tall, A. & Olsen, D. (2014). National Cyber Range Overview. Paper Published in IEEE Military Communications Conference. DOI: 10.1109/ MILCOM. 2014.27. Retrieved from: https:// ieeexplore. ieee. org/ document/ 6956748/ citations#citations
Finkelstein, C. O. and Govern, K. H. (2015). Introduction: Cyber and the Changing Face of War. Faculty Scholarship, Paper 1566. Retrieved from: https://scholarship.law. upenn. edu/ cgi/ viewcontent.cgi?article=2567&context=faculty_scholarship
Gertz, B. (2012, Sep. 30). White House Hack Attack. Retrieved from The Washington Free Beacon: http://freebeacon.com/white-house-hack-attack/.
Gomez, M. N. A. (2016). Arming Cyberspace: The Militarization of a Virtual Domain. Global Security and Intelligence Studies, 1(2), pp. 42-65. Retrieved from: https:// www. ibei. org/ arming- cyberspace- the- militarization- of- a-virtual-domain_ 54871.pdf
Hinsley, F. H. and Stripp, A. (2001). Codebreakers: The Inside Story of Bletchley Park. Oxford: Oxford University Press
Hopkins, N. (2012, Apr. 16). Militarisation of cyberspace: how the global power struggle moved online. The Guardian. Retrieved from: https://www.theguardian. com/ technology/2012/apr/16/militarisation-of-cyberspace-power-struggle
Kaplan, F. (2016). Dark Territory: The Secret History of Cyber War. New York: Simon and Schuster Paperbacks
Klare, M. T. (1978). Militarism: The Issue Today. Bulletin of Peace Proposals, 9(2), pp. 121-128. https://doi.org/10.1177/096701067800900203
Krekel, B.; Adams, P and Bakos, G. (2012, Mar. 7). Occupying the Information High Ground: Chinese Capabilities for Computer Network Operations and Cyber Espionage (Report Prepared for the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission). Northrop Grumman. Retrieved from: https://assets. documentcloud. org/documents/2700148/Document-66.pdf
Kosina, K. (2012). Wargames in the Fifth Domain. Master Thesis. Diplomatic Academy of Vienna. Retreived from: http://kyrah.net/da/wargames.pdf
Libicki, M. (2014). The Strategic Uses of Ambiguity in Cyberspace. In G. Siboni (Ed.), Cyberspace and National Security; selected articles (pp. 43-50). Tel Aviv: The Institute for National Security Studies. Retrieved from http://din-online. info/ pdf/in2e.pdf
Liff, A. P. (2012). Cyberwar: A New ‘Absolute Weapon’? The Proliferation of Cyberwarfare Capabilities and Interstate War. Journal of Strategic Studies, 35(3). pp. 401-428. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2012.663252
Monroe, J. S. (2009, Jun. 25). Cyber Command: Observers Worry about Unintended Consequences. Retrieved from: https:// fcw. com/ articles/2009/06/25/cyber-command-dod-nsa.aspx
Mount, M. (2010, Apr. 16). U.S. Won't Militarize Cyberspace, Nominee Says. CNN Politics. Retrieved from: http://edition.cnn.com/2010/POLITICS/04/16/ military. cyberspace/index.html
Olszewski, B. (2016). Militarization of Cyber Space and Multidimensionality of Security. Journal of Science of the Military Academy of Land Forces, 48(2), pp. (105-120). DOI:10.5604/17318157.1216083
Pernik, P.; Wojtkowiak, J. and Verschoor-Kirss, A. (2016). National Cyber Security Organization: United States. NATO Cooperative Cyber Defense Center for Excellence. Tallinn. Estonia. Retrieved from: https:// ccdcoe. org/ uploads/ 2018/10/ CS_organisation_USA_122015-2.pdf
Pomerleau, 2017 https://www.fifthdomain.com/workforce/career/2017/07/25/heres-how-dod-organizes-its-cyber-warriors/
Schofield, J. (2007). Introduction: Contending Views-Militarism, Militarization and War. In J. Schofield, Militarization and War (pp. 1-…). Retrieved Oct. 6 2019 from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-1-137-07719-6_2
Shanker, Th. (2009, Jun. 23). New Military Command for Cyberspace. The New York Times. Retrieved from: https://www. nytimes. com/ 2009/06/24/ technology/ 24cyber. html
The National Military Strategy for Cyberspace Operations. (2006, Dec.). US Department of Defense. Retrieved from: https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=35693
National Security Strategy. (2010 May). The White House. Seal of the President of the United States. Retrieved from:
The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace. (2003 Feb.). Retrieved from: https://assets. documentcloud.org/documents/2700096/Document-16.pdf
The Quadrennial Defense Review Report. (Feb. 2010). Department of Defense. Retrieved from: https://archive.defense.gov/qdr/QDR%20as% 20of% 2029JAN 10%201600.pdf
The Quadrennial Homeland Security Review. (2010). Department of Homeland Security. Retrieved form: https://www. dhs. gov/ sites/ default/files/publications /2010-qhsr-report.pdf
The US International Strategy for Cyberspace. (2011, May). The White House. Washington: https:// assets. documentcloud. org/ documents/ 2700127/Document-46.pdf
Thomas, T. L. (2009). Nation-State Cyber Strategies: Examples from China and Russia. In F. D. Kramer, S. H. Starr and L. K. Wentz, Cyberpower and National Security (pp. 477-486). Washington, D. C.: Center for Technology and National Security Policy, National Defense University Press, Potomac Books Inc. Retrieved from: https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/Books/CTBSP-Exports/Cyberpower/Cyberpower-I-Chap-02.pdf?ver=2017-06-16-115052-210
Tofan, D. C.; Andrei, M. L. and Dincă, M. L. (2012). Cyber Security Policy. A methodology for Determining a National Cyber-Security Alert Level. Informatica Economică, 16(2): pp. 103-115. Retrieved from: https://search.proquest.com/ central/docview/1030278701/fulltextPDF/1BEA265975F04941PQ/31?accountid=45153
Trauschweizer, I. (2018, Jan 11). Militarism. Oxford Bibliographies. Retrieved from: https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199791279/obo-9780199791279-0099.xml?rskey=XOLZzu&result=3&q=militarization#firstMatch
The Comprehensive National Cyber Security Initiative. (2007). Executive Office of the President of the United States. Retrieved from: https://obamawhitehouse.archives. gov/ sites/default/files/cybersecurity.pdf
The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace. (2003). The White House. Retrieved from: https://assets.documentcloud.org/documents/2700096/Document-16.pdf
US Army Cyber Command. (2020). About Us. Retrieved from: https://www. arcyber. army.mil/Organization/About-Army-Cyber/
US-China Economic & Security Review Commission. (2012). Report to Congress. Retrieved from: https://books. googleusercontent. com/ books/ content? req= AKW5Qafv046-NM8DMEfjxsDPRt3DmSECms0B8v8X-iiVsyv7Ryo 5d0y5 Jhb YY Aft8vvcwr EsbQqaT7enKbIGPAPDdav9R3nbFufH9nhw TH8WXdLNNco 9Ami_80vfuruVpt_Zl7Y2mBVbGLtQbhtE1EDGAWAl0IvS3_M5lAdqRZi-R6zzx BwXBpY6Hbxv3gRmo-kQA1WXQXMAEjKm_ZFUojSQzcD2_PUBZuIA MFL kJ9as9jEnxKUXuijNpL455v4_ WP98GbY9hbo69RjpOLUG0Me ZSgo7So P7pA
US Department of Defense. (2010). USCYBERCOM Fact Sheet. Retrieved from: https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB424/docs/Cyber-038.pdf
Iranian Review of Foreign Affairs
Volume 10, Issue 29 - Serial Number 1
February 2019
Pages 99-136

Files

History

  • Receive Date: 16 February 2021
  • Accept Date: 16 February 2021

Share

How to cite

Statistics